Metformin Alleviates Pain States by Regulating the Balance of Spinal Synaptic Transmission.

BACKGROUND: Metformin has been shown to have potent analgesic effects; however, the underlying mechanism of synaptic plasticity mediating analgesia remained ambiguous. METHODS: In this study, animal behavioral tests, whole-cell patch­clamp recording, immunofluorescence staining, and network pharmacology techniques were applied to elucidate the mechanisms and potential targets of metformin-induced analgesia. RESULTS: Single or consecutive injections of metformin significantly inhibited spinal nerve ligation (SNL)-induced neuropathic pain, and formalin-induced acute inflammatory pain. Network pharmacology analysis of metformin action targets in pain database-related targets revealed 25 targets, including five hub targets (nitric oxide synthase 1 (NOS1), NOS2, NOS3, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and plasminogen (PLG)). Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis demonstrated that metformin-induced analgesia was markedly correlated with calcium signaling and synaptic transmission. Intrathecal injection of metformin significantly reversed nerve injury-induced c-Fos (neural activity biomarker) mRNA and protein expression in neuropathic rats by regulating NOS2 expression. In addition, whole-cell recordings of isolated spinal neurons demonstrated that metformin dose-dependently inhibited the enhanced frequency and amplitude of miniature excitatory synaptic currents (mEPSCs) but did not affect those of miniature inhibitory synaptic currents (mIPSCs) in neuropathic pain. CONCLUSIONS: This study further demonstrated that metformin might inhibit spinal glutamatergic transmission and abnormal nociceptive circuit transduction by monitoring synaptic transmission in pain. Results of this work provide an in-depth understanding of metformin analgesia via synaptic plasticity.

Store-operated calcium entry mediates hyperalgesic responses during neuropathy.

Neuropathic pain (NP), resulting from nerve injury, alters neural plasticity in spinal cord and brain via the release of inflammatory mediators. The remodeling of store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) involves the refilling of calcium in the endoplasmic reticulum via STIM1 and Orai1 proteins and is crucial for maintaining neural plasticity and neurotransmitter release. The mechanism underlying SOCE-mediated NP remains largely unknown. In this study, we found SOCE-mediated calcium refilling was significantly higher during neuropathic pain, and the major component Orai1 was specifically co-localized with neuronal markers. Intrathecal injection of SOCE antagonist SKF96365 remarkably alleviated nerve injury- and formalin-induced pain and suppressed c-Fos expression in response to innocuous mechanical stimulation. RNA sequencing revealed that SKF96365 altered the expression of spinal transcription factors, including Fos, Junb, and Socs3, during neuropathic pain. In order to identify the genes critical for SKF96365-induced effects, we performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to identify the genes most correlated with paw withdrawal latency phenotypes. Of the 16 modules, MEsalmon module was the most highly correlated with SKF96365 induced effects. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that the enriched genes of MEsalmon module were significantly related to Toll-like receptor signaling, steroid biosynthesis, and chemokine signaling, which may mediate the analgesic effect caused by SKF9636 treatment. Additionally, the SOCE antagonist YM-58483 produced similar analgesic effects in nerve injury- and formalin-induced pain. Our results suggest that manipulation of spinal SOCE signaling might be a promising target for pain relief by regulating neurotransmitter production and spinal transcription factor expression.

Venlafaxine Inhibits the Apoptosis of SHSY-5Y Cells Through Active Wnt/ß-Catenin Signaling Pathway.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explore the mechanism of venlafaxine in regulating the apoptosis of SHSY-5Y cells induced by hypoxia. METHODS: The CoCl2-induced neuronal hypoxia model was established based on SHSY-5Y cells. The morphology and related protein expression of SHSY-5Y cells were detected by qPCR, ELISA and Western blot. RESULTS: Under the condition of hypoxia-induced by CoCl2, the expression of HIF-1α in SHSY-5Y cells was up-regulated and the expression of ß-catenin was down-regulated. After adding siRNA targeting HIF-1 α to the culture cell system, down-regulation of ß -catenin expression in SHSY-5Y cells was restored. This confirmed the existence of the "hypoxia-HIF-1α-Wnt/ß-catenin-depression" axis. Further studies have shown that venlafaxine can alleviate neuronal apoptosis induced by hypoxia by upregulating the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway. CONCLUSION: Venlafaxine regulates apoptosis induced by hypoxia through the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway, which provides a new theoretical basis for the treatment of depression.

Hsa_circ_0068307 mediates bladder cancer stem cell-like properties via miR-147/c-Myc axis regulation.

BACKGROUND: Circular RNAs (circRNAs) play an essential role in the regulation of gene expression. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the role of hsa_circ_0068307 in bladder cancer (BCa). METHODS: Rt-qPCR was used to detect hsa_circ_0068307 expression in BCa cell lines. The CCK8, colony formation, and Transwell assays were used to evaluate the effect of hsa_circ_0068307 on BCa cell migration and proliferation. Bioinformatics and luciferase reporter experiments were used to study the regulatory mechanism. Nude mouse xenografts were generated to examine the effect of hsa_circ_0068307 on tumor growth. RESULTS: The results showed that hsa_circ_0068307 was upregulated in BCa cell lines. Downregulation of hsa_circ_0068307 suppressed cell migration and proliferation in T24 and UMUC3 cells. Hsa_circ_0068307 silencing suppressed cancer stem cell differentiation by upregulating miR-147 expression. Upregulation of miR-147 suppressed c-Myc expression, which is involved in cancer stem cell differentiation. Luciferase reporter assays confirmed that hsa_circ_0068307 upregulated c-Myc expression by targeting miR-147. In vivo studies showed that hsa_circ_0068307 knockdown suppressed T24 tumor growth. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that downregulation of hsa_circ_0068307 reversed the stem cell-like properties of human bladder cancer through the regulation of the miR-147/c-Myc axis.

Determination of venlafaxine and its active metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine in human plasma by HPLC fluorescence.

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic drug monitoring guides clinical individualised medication by measuring plasma concentration, which could improve the curative effect, avoid drug overdose and reduce the incidence of adverse reactions. At present, there are few reports on the clinical detection of venlafaxine and its active metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine. In this paper, the detection method of venlafaxine and O-desmethylvenlafaxine in blood plasma was established, which provides an effective and convenient means for guiding clinical application of medication. AIM: To establish a method for determination of venlafaxine and its active metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. METHODS: Chromatographic separation was achieved on an Agilent Eclipse XDB-C18 Column (4.6 × 150 mm, 5 µm) with water containing sodium dihydrogen phosphate (0.05 mol/L) and acetonitrile (72:28) as the mobile phases. The following parameters were employed: flow rate 0.5 mL/min, column temperature 30°C, fluorescence excitation wavelength 276 nm and emission wavelength 598 nm. RESULTS: The method showed good linearity in the concentration range 10-1000 ng/mL. The regression equation for venlafaxine was R=0.0054C+0.0264, r2=0.99991. The regression equation for O-desmethylvenlafaxine was R=0.0034C+0.0272, r2=0.99969. The intraday and interday precisions (relative SD) were less than 10%, and the quantitative limit was 10 ng/mL. CONCLUSION: We established a sensitive, specific and simple method for the detection of venlafaxine and O-desmethylvenlafaxine. This method fully meets the needs of clinical trials of venlafaxine and the requirements of relevant guidelines. It provided a reference for the clinical detection of venlafaxine and O-desmethylvenlafaxine plasma concentrations and pharmacokinetic study.

HTR1A/1B DNA methylation may predict escitalopram treatment response in depressed Chinese Han patients.

BACKGROUND: The serotonin receptor 1A and 1B (HTR1A/1B) gene have been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and the antidepressant treatment response. Gene expression differences were partly mediated by genetic polymorphism and DNA methylation which might be affected by environmental factors. In the present study, we attempt to identify whether HTR1A/1B DNA methylation and genetic polymorphism could predict antidepressant treatment response. METHODS: 85 Chinese Han MDD patients were clinically assessed 8 weeks after of initiating escitalopram treatment for the first time. Antidepressant treatment response was assessed by changes in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-17 items (HAMD-17) score. The Life Events Scale (LES) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) were utilized as the assessment of previous life stress. The Illumina HiSeq platform was used to assess DNA methylation at 96 CpG sites located in HTR1A and HTR1B gene promoter regions. Six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (HTR1A rs6294, rs116985176; HTR1B rs6296, rs6298, rs1228814, rs1778258) were genotype by using polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) or PCR sequencing. Regression analyses were used to explore the relationship between DNA methylation and SNP and antidepressant response. RESULTS: We identified two CpG sites predictor of antidepressant treatment response (CpG 668, amplicon HTR1A_1, NC_000005.10, P = 0.025; CpG 1401, amplicon HTR1B_4, NC_000006.12, P = 0.033). The interaction of four CpG sites hypomethylation of HTR1A/1B with high recent stress might result in impaired antidepressant treatment response. What's more, the present data indicated that age, environments and antidepressant treatment might affect DNA methylation status. It was found that DNA methylation status could be influenced by antidepressant treatment in turn. However, HTR1A and HTR1B genotypes did not influence antidepressant response and DNA methylation status. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that HTR1A/1B DNA hypomethylation and its interaction with recent life stress might drive impaired antidepressant treatment response. Meanwhile, DNA methylation, in turn, was modified by antidepressant treatment and environments. Our results offer new evidence for the role of epigenetic and genetic polymorphism in pharmacological response to antidepressants.

Metabolic adverse effects of olanzapine on cognitive dysfunction: A possible relationship between BDNF and TNF-alpha.

OBJECTIVE: There is accumulating evidence indicating that long-term treatment with second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) results in metabolic syndrome (MetS) and cognitive impairment. This evidence suggests an intrinsic link between antipsychotic-induced MetS and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia patients. Olanzapine is a commonly prescribed SGA with a significantly higher MetS risk than that of most antipsychotics. In this study, we hypothesized that olanzapine-induced MetS may exacerbate cognitive dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: A sample of 216 schizophrenia patients receiving long-term olanzapine monotherapy were divided into two groups, MetS and non-MetS, based on the diagnostic criteria of the National Cholesterol Education Program's Adult Treatment Panel III. We also recruited 72 healthy individuals for a control group. Cognitive function was evaluated using the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). Plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for 108 patients and 47 controls. RESULTS: Among the 216 schizophrenia patients receiving olanzapine monotherapy, MetS was found in 95/216 (44%). Patients with MetS had more negative symptoms, higher total scores in PANSS (Ps<0.05) and lower immediate memory, attention, delayed memory and total scores in RBANS (Ps<0.01). Stepwise multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that increased glucose was the independent risk factor for cognitive dysfunction (t=-2.57, P=0.01). Patients with MetS had significantly lower BDNF (F=6.49, P=0.012) and higher TNF-alpha (F=5.08, P=0.026) levels than those without MetS. There was a negative correlation between the BDNF and TNF-alpha levels in the patients (r=-0.196, P=0.042). CONCLUSION: Our findings provide evidence suggesting that the metabolic adverse effects of olanzapine may aggravate cognitive dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia through an interaction between BDNF and TNF-alpha.

Augmentation with antidepressants in schizophrenia treatment: benefit or risk.

We focused on the application of antidepressants in schizophrenia treatment in this review. Augmentation of antidepressants with antipsychotics is a common clinical practice to treat resistant symptoms in schizophrenia, including depressive symptoms, negative symptoms, comorbid obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and other psychotic manifestations. However, recent systematic review of the clinical effects of antidepressants is lacking. In this review, we have selected and summarized current literature on the use of antidepressants in patients with schizophrenia; the patterns of use and effectiveness, as well as risks and drug-drug interactions of this clinical practice are discussed in detail, with particular emphasis on the treatment of depressive symptoms in schizophrenia.